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NASA Administrator James Webb assuming President Lyndon Johnson how Surveyor would be acclimated in abutment of Apollo landings. Afterwards the antecedent Surveyor missions, NASA planned on application some Surveyor missions to accredit specific sites as safe for the Lunar Module to land. Although 17 Surveyor missions were initially planned, alone seven ultimately flew, with bristles successes. (credit: NASA)
It may arise as anon as abutting year: an American automatic aircraft may already afresh set bottomward on the apparent of the Moon, for the aboriginal time in added than 50 years. The aftermost time that happened was in January 1968, aback Surveyor 7 affected bottomward on the alien rim of the behemothic atrium Tycho, the armpit of the abstruse brace in the cine 2001: A Space Odyssey. If American scientists had gotten their wish, Surveyor 7 would accept been followed by added automatic missions into the 1970s, some able to aftermost abundant best than a distinct lunar day, and some possibly accustomed a baby departer that could extend analysis efforts above the antecedent landing site. At one point, the Surveyor affairs planned to accelerate 17 missions to the Moon. But Surveyor was abominably pared aback by the mid-1960s, and although some American scientists allegedly captivated out achievement of connected automatic analysis of the Moon afterwards Apollo, those hopes did not flourish.[1] Surveyor had started out as a accurate spacecraft, but the chase to the Moon afflicted its goals and ultimately bent its fate.
Early mockup of a Surveyor lander able with assorted accurate instruments. Abounding of these instruments were deleted in 1962–63 because of apropos that the Atlas-Centaur rocket could not lift a abundant Surveyor. By 1964, Surveyor was primarily focused on assessing the lunar apparent in abutment of Apollo missions. (credit: NASA)
Surveyor was originally planned to be the arch NASA lunar science affairs of the 1960s. Afore John F. Kennedy in May 1961 redirected Apollo from a affairs that adeptness eventually accelerate astronauts about the Moon to a affairs to acreage them on the Moon by a deadline, NASA initially envisioned a automatic lunar affairs called Prospector that would absorb a alternation of lunar orbiters, landers, and rovers. Prospector blown about 1961 to be replaced by Surveyor in 1962. Aback it was initiated, Surveyor was activity to accommodate both a lunar orbiter with science instruments and an aggressive lunar lander. The all-encompassing science apartment on the aboriginal Surveyor abstraction anon got pared aback for assorted reasons, including the burden limitations of its barrage vehicle. But alike by 1963, as the Apollo lunar landing affairs was able-bodied underway, Surveyor included both a lander and a science orbiter appointed Surveyor B.
However, with Apollo now as the above focus for NASA’s lunar analysis plans, what NASA bare was not science abstracts about the Moon—the Apollo missions would accommodate that—but accepted abstracts about the lunar apparent that would be advantageous for landing the Lunar Module on the Moon. That meant acceptable affection photographs of the lunar apparent to assay with images taken from orbit, and abstracts anecdotic the concrete qualities of the lunar apparent that an LM would acreage on. Surveyor’s alternate aircraft was canceled, replaced by the below aggressive and abundant added focused Lunar Orbiter program. Lunar Orbiter accepted to be awful successful, but it did not accommodate the alternate science abstracts that the Surveyor orbiter was declared to produce. The Surveyor lander absent science instruments in favor of instruments for testing the bendability and agreement of the lunar regolith.
Surveyor started out as the capital NASA lunar science affairs in the aboriginal 1960s. The Surveyor B orbiter was canceled in favor of the Lunar Orbiter. (credit: NASA)
Surveyor was run by the Jet Propulsion Class in Pasadena, California, with Hughes as the prime contractor. Aback the Surveyor orbiter was canceled and Lunar Orbiter begun, administration albatross for Lunar Orbiter went to NASA’s Langley Research Centermost in Virginia. As Surveyor entered its acute architecture appearance in 1963, JPL issued abstraction affairs to several aerospace contractors to assay avant-garde versions of Surveyor.
In December 1963, NASA was planning for 17 Surveyor missions to the Moon, appointed A thru Q. The aboriginal four were primarily engineering missions, the abutting three were operational missions, and the abutting ten were undefined. As an example, the aboriginal two Surveyor aircraft would not backpack a apparent sampler, which would be added to the third and fourth missions. The three “operational” missions would barter the apparent adornment for an alpha drop instrument. That month, Surveyor affairs administrator Benjamin Milwitsky proposed that the cardinal of Surveyor missions be added to 29, and that science instruments be added aback on Surveyor missions starting in 1967. This would crave an advancement to the Atlas-Centaur rocket. But Milwitsky’s proposals, forth with added proposals for accretion NASA’s lunar and all-embracing science programs, were alone by the end of the year. The scientists’ ambitions were reigned in, and Surveyor was kept to 17 missions.[2]
The aboriginal seven Surveyor missions were appointed as Surveyor I vehicles, or sometimes “Block I.” The primary objectives of Surveyor I cartage were to accomplish a bendable lunar landing and to access basal engineering and accurate abstracts apropos the lunar ambiance and characteristics.[3] Accessible affidavit does not announce aback NASA began apropos to “Surveyor II,” but at some point during 1964 it appears that NASA accepted that cartage 8-17 would be of the uprated Surveyor II design. Surveyor II, like Surveyor I, was advised to abutment Apollo, but accommodate abundant added specific abstracts for landing sites. “The primary mission of the Surveyor II aircraft is to accumulate acceptable advice about the lunar apparent to admittance the alternative and abundant analysis of acceptable landing areas for the Apollo Lunar Excursion Module (LEM),” a architect address declared. “Other accessory missions for Surveyor II accommodate Apollo Landing Support, Apollo Logistics, Lunar Exploration, and Broadcast Science missions.”[4]
The Surveyor B was advised to conduct lunar science. It was canceled in favor of Lunar Orbiter, a more-focused affairs that was tasked with accepting photographs of abeyant Apollo landing sites. (credit: NASA)
An Apollo Requirements Document of February 1964 declared a claim for a baby ambulant agent to advice “certify” Apollo landing sites. Anon the departer was envisioned for two added accessible missions: developing technology for approaching manned lunar rovers and assuming accurate missions on the Moon. The departer would crave an upgraded Surveyor lander—it could not be agitated on a Surveyor I blazon spacecraft.
For Surveyor II to accommodate aircraft achievement constant with the Apollo landing armpit analysis mission—including accustomed the rover—changes were appropriate to the basal Surveyor I design. The weight amends appropriate to absorb the achievement changes would abatement the burden capability, acute that the agent admeasurement be added to accredit accustomed alike the aforementioned burden as Surveyor I. For example, if the injected weight was belted to Surveyor I’s 1,065 kilograms (2,350 pounds), alone 50 to 61 kilograms (110 to 135 pounds) of burden could be agitated for a Surveyor II mission. But if the aircraft weight was added to 1,225 kilograms (2,700 pounds) injected weight, Surveyor II could backpack a 125-kilogram (274-
pound) payload.[5] These predictions ultimately accepted too optimistic, and Surveyor I’s burden was belted added than Hughes’ engineers had originally expected.
Surveyor I acclimated the absolute ascendance access for all-encompassing the Moon, acceptation that it was launched from Earth on an Atlas-Centaur rocket and catholic beeline to the Moon’s surface, decelerating on the way down. But this resulted in a bound barrage window and belted the ablaze altitude at landing. In contrast, Surveyor II would use a parking apogee bang mode, accretion the barrage window and giving mission designers the adeptness to accept bigger lighting altitude for landing.[6] The spaceframe anatomy was artlessly scaled up and broadcast hardly at the abject but was not fundamentally changed. Surveyor II still had the tripod landing accessory of the antecedent aircraft design.[7]
Surveyor missions afterwards the aboriginal seven (later afflicted to afterwards the aboriginal ten) were to be added able and could alike backpack a Surveyor Lunar Ambulant Vehicle, or SLRV. These missions were still advised to abutment Apollo, possibly by aloof out specific landing sites. (credit: NASA)
Hughes, which was again active developing the Surveyor I for aboriginal barrage in 1966, categorical a agenda for the Surveyor II missions that would accept to announce the Apollo landings. The aboriginal Surveyor II barrage would action in the aboriginal division of 1968. It would be followed by nine launches on a annual agenda catastrophe in backward 1969.[8] One accessible mission that NASA animal spaceflight admiral were absorbed in circuitous landing a Surveyor with a alarm for an Apollo Lunar Module to home in on.[9]
NASA’s action for anecdotic automatic aircraft was to accord the aircraft missions letter designations until they were launched, at which time they were accustomed numbers—Surveyor A became Surveyor 1, and so on. But the all-embracing appellation of the planned spacecraft, such as “Block II” and “Surveyor II,” confused in abstracts at the time and was not acutely authentic from the outset. The cartage afterwards the aboriginal seven were at one point referred to as the “Surveyor Follow-On” program, consisting of three to bristles aircraft agnate to the three operational Surveyors (Surveyors E-G). Added abstracts announce that admitting missions eight to ten may accept initially been advised allotment of a Surveyor II program, they were afterwards advised to be upgraded Surveyor I missions, with Surveyor II absolute missions 11 to 17. As continued as NASA was focused on the aboriginal seven missions, the afterwards ten missions were ill-defined.
The Jet Propulsion Laboratory, which managed the Surveyor program, issued affairs to two companies to anatomy analysis versions of a Surveyor rover. The Accepted Motors architecture apparent actuality had three segments and six auto and accepted above in tests. (credit: NASA)
Upgrading Surveyor I into the Surveyor II agreement was advised by Hughes engineers to be almost straightforward, depending aloft how abundant adequacy NASA capital to add. The development of a baby lunar departer would accept been added challenging. NASA’s Office of Space Science and Applications and the Office of Manned Space Flight were allied on the departer because it was actuality advised for analysis of Apollo landing sites and could additionally accept science applications.[10]
In aboriginal 1964, JPL requested that abeyant departer developers abide bids for abstraction affairs and issued a abbreviate acknowledgment time for the bids, allegedly to edger out companies with bound capabilities and focus on those that had already performed cogent centralized studies of their own. Bristles companies submitted departer proposals: Space General, Accepted Motors Defense Research Labs, Sperry Utah, Bendix Systems Division, and American Machine and Foundry. The departer would counterbalance about 45 kilograms (100 pounds) and be top-mounted on the Surveyor. It would accommodate its own imaging arrangement for advice and navigation. Primary communications would be anon to a arena antenna on Earth, which essentially bound its abstracts rate.
JPL anon issued two affairs for a “Surveyor Lunar Ambulant Vehicle” or SLRV, to Accepted Motors and Bendix Systems Division. Accepted Motors produced its antecedent abstraction address in April 1964.[11] GM’s proposed departer consisted of three box-like sections hinged calm with six wheels. The departer would backpack a television camera and a communications antenna that ashore up from its centermost box breadth and could be aloft and bargain to accord with breadth blocking its signals. The Accepted Motors departer was advised to be deployed from a acclimatized Surveyor lander which would alter its apparatus bales with a accumulator breadth and access to accredit the departer to adeptness the lunar surface. The departer would be array powered.
In summer 1964, GM delivered a baby ancestor departer to JPL. It was radio controlled from a receiver assemblage that was able with a television screen. But the ascendancy arrangement was advised with a time adjournment affection to simulate the several added round-trip manual adjournment amid an abettor on Earth and the departer on the Moon. JPL engineers activated the baby departer in an alfresco analysis breadth at the laboratory, active it over assorted types of terrain. At the time, no adeptness had landed on the lunar surface, and operators did not apperceive if they would be active over rocks or the agnate of beach or dust, so they activated all of these options. Although they activate the time adjournment active to be annoying—one abettor arise it as “headache-inducing”—it was still feasible. According to Donald A. Beattie, columnist of Taking Science to the Moon, the GM departer additionally had a handheld ambassador that JPL technicians acclimated for active it about the analysis course.[12]
Bendix proposed a departer with a distinct box-like anatomy and four tracked propulsion modules. In tests, the Bendix advance performed badly. (credit: NASA)
Bendix Systems Division additionally produced its departer address in April 1964.[13] The Bendix angle was below accepted than Accepted Motors’ lunar rover. The Bendix departer had four absorption drive units operating continued advance on the end of four legs. The anatomy anatomy army a television camera, cyberbanking compartment, omni and radio-frequency alignment antennas, and a directional antenna for absolute advice with Earth rather than through the lander. Instead of batteries, the departer had an RTG adeptness accumulation army at the rear. The Bendix agent would accept been abundant added circuitous and big-ticket than GM’s proposal, if alone because of the RTG adeptness source. But it was anon done in by its own design.[14]
According to Earl Swift, autograph in Across the Airless Wilds, his 2021 history of the Apollo 15 lunar departer (see “Review: Across the Airless Wilds”, The Space Review, July 12, 2021), the GM and Bendix cartage were activated by JPL in the Arizona arid in 1964. GM had developed wire cobweb auto for the lunar surface. Application these wire wheels, the GM departer accepted awful capable, able to handle rocks and inclines. The Bendix rover, however, was a disaster. The treads started to atom as anon as the breadth got rough. JPL’s engineers apoplectic the test; the GM architecture was the bright winner.[15]
In July 1964, Hughes Aircraft Company’s Space Systems Division produced a address on how the Surveyor lander could be acclimatized to abutment either of the two rovers. This included accouterment it with best landing legs because the departer would be agitated aerial on the agent and accomplish it top abundant on landing. Hughes assure
d that it was achievable to backpack a baby departer on the Surveyor.[16]
Hughes, which congenital the Surveyor landers and advised added avant-garde versions, evaluated how the Accepted Motors and Bendix rovers could be agitated on the lander. (credit: NASA)
While JPL was testing the two departer designs, Hughes was continuing to abstraction added avant-garde versions of the Surveyor while proceeding with all-encompassing development of Surveyor A planned for a 1966 lunar landing. These avant-garde versions had the accepted appellation of Surveyor Block II, and throughout 1964, the cold of Surveyor Block II was “to access alarmingly bare lunar apparent abstracts appropriate to baddest and accredit the adequacy of one or added Apollo landing sites.”[17] Certifying a landing armpit was a greater claiming than the requirements for the aboriginal Surveyors.
In November 1964, Hughes produced an all-encompassing abstraction of a “Surveyor II concept.”[18] Hughes evaluated altered configurations for the Surveyor, including accretion its burden and the ammunition appropriate to acreage it. Alternative science payloads included a assignment for sampling below the surface. The best abolitionist access would accept replaced Surveyor’s solar panels with a Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator (RTG), which would accept enabled the aircraft to aftermost through the 14-day lunar night, with an ultimate lifetime of up to one year on the Moon. The aircraft possibly could backpack seismic sensors agnate to those emplaced on the Moon by the Apollo astronauts, accretion the ambit of the seismic arrangement that was already planned for Apollo. Although the abstraction did not burrow into the accountable in detail, one advantage was accouterment Surveyor to conduct a lunar sample acknowledgment mission.
Hughes bent that upgraded versions of Surveyor would crave best landing legs and evaluated altered methods of extending them. (credit: NASA)
The Surveyor II lander would photograph the landing breadth and analysis the bounded apparent composition. The abstraction proposed several added uses for added Surveyor missions. These included accouterment acumen abutment at Apollo landing sites such as added communications, and carrying a departer to appraise the bounded breadth above-mentioned to a animal landing. Hughes arise that Surveyor II would not be able to acreage from 20 to 60 degrees east, an breadth again actuality advised for Apollo landings. Because of this, “ground truth” abstracts would accept to be extrapolated to this arena by Lunar Orbiter or Apollo photography. The Block II aircraft weight was to be 1,135 kilograms (2,500 pounds) with a accessible access to 1,225 kilograms (2,700 pounds).
Making forerunner landings afore an Apollo mission was based aloft the acceptance that the breadth at the Apollo landing sites adeptness be advised so chancy that manned landings appropriate a automatic landing first. But the Apollo affairs was already advancing abundant accident abridgement efforts, including the Lunar Orbiter affairs to photograph abeyant landing sites and the awful classified UPWARD/Lunar Mapping and Analysis Arrangement (LMSS) project, which would accept acclimatized a top abstruse assay camera for use about the Moon.[19]
Although the primary ambition of Surveyor II was to assay and accredit Apollo landing sites above-mentioned to a landing, Hughes articular added missions that a added avant-garde Surveyor could conduct. These missions included abutment to Apollo astronauts while they were on the surface, and analysis and science missions. The Surveyor “exploration mission” could put added landers bottomward in added locations on the Moon than the Apollo sites, accretion accurate adeptness of the Moon. The Surveyor “science mission” would accept circuitous a added aggressive set of instruments and a longer-lived lander with an RTG that would accumulate the aircraft animate during the two-week-long lunar night. It assuredly would accept been decidedly added expensive.
Although the Surveyor departer affairs was canceled in summer 1965 due to costs and the assurance of NASA admiral that it was not bare for Apollo landing armpit certification, it still had a legacy. The wire auto developed for GM’s departer were afterwards acclimatized and acclimatized for the Apollo Lunar Ambulant Vehicle, aboriginal agitated on Apollo 15. (credit: NASA)
In January 1965, NASA admiral grew anxious about the aerial costs of the departer and started to aback off on the appearance that it was appropriate for Apollo, which had been its primary justification.[20] JPL would abide studies of a departer program, with departer missions possibly phased in by aboriginal 1969, although 1968 was adorable if practical. JPL was declared to abstract a plan for selecting one of the two departer contractors.
Oran Nicks, Administrator of Lunar & All-embracing Programs in the Office of Space Science and Applications, accepted that acceptable the Office of Manned Space Flight departer requirements “resulted in an unrealistic appearance of the best appliance of Surveyor developments. The ambulant agent studies based on these requirements were necessary, however,” Nicks wrote, “in adjustment to actuate the consequence of the botheration of acceptable the declared Apollo requirements.”[21] Although he did not say so directly, Nicks adumbrated that if lunar science had apprenticed the Surveyor II requirements, the affairs studies would accept looked a lot different.
In January 1965, NASA additionally absitively not to alpha development of a Block II Surveyor with decidedly added capabilities, but to abide the Block I architecture with improvements for the abreast term, apparently acceptation that NASA would not accompany a Block II architecture starting with the eighth aircraft but instead a afterwards mission.[22] These follow-on Surveyor aircraft were still advised to anon abutment Apollo landings and would accept affected bottomward on the lunar apparent with dynamics instrumentation, an Apollo landing breadth device, and a agency for acceptable the afterimage of the landing Surveyor.[23]
Hughes advised altered missions for Surveyor above acknowledging Apollo. One advantage was for a lunar apparent sample acknowledgment mission. It does not arise that this was abundantly studied. (credit: NASA)
Although NASA admiral had bent that the departer would not be admired for Apollo, there were still some in NASA who believed it could accommodate advantageous abstracts for developing a approaching manned lunar rover, article that could accept been included in afterwards Apollo missions. In June 1965, Franklin P. Dixon, the Acting Administrator of Avant-garde Manned Mission Studies, wrote to the administrator of the Avant-garde Manned Missions Program. Dixon explained that the Surveyor departer could be acclimated to analysis the ambiance and breadth for a approaching manned rover. But he accepted that the departer chart would be acutely limited, acceptation that abundant of the advice would not be acquired by absolute altitude but would accept to be accepted from telemetered data.[24]
Dixon added that there were abounding questions about the adequacy of operators to accidentally beacon and ascendancy the agent beneath acute lighting altitude and advice time delay. There were additionally questions about the adeptness of the video and advice chart to accommodate all-important data, and ad
eptness of the abettor to assay abstracts provided and again acknowledge to variations in apparent conditions. There were additionally questions about analysis of agent apparatus and the technology. Dixon declared that if the chart on the departer could be improved, it would be added admired to approaching manned departer projects.
By this time the Surveyor rover’s costs and its bound annual had already admiring absorption alfresco of NASA. In May 1965, House and Senate address accent instructed NASA not to activate departer development but to abide acceptance it, and to abide acceptance the requirements for the rover. NASA’s plan had been to accept a departer accessible by mid-1968 for the purpose of certifying landing sites, and unless development was started quickly, it would not be accessible for absolute abutment of Apollo. If it slipped into 1969, its charge would be questionable.[25]
Shortly after, Administrator of Lunar & All-embracing Programs Oran Nicks responded to Surveyor affairs administrator Benjamin Milwitzsky that the aldermanic accent adumbrated that the departer should not be developed until afterwards a accustomed Surveyor mission had occurred. Nicks declared that they should at atomic activate planning for development of the avant-garde lander that could backpack such a departer based on Nicks’ acceptance that this was aural the ambit of the absorbed of the aldermanic language. He acclaimed that they had to advance with development of the avant-garde lander at that time if they capital to eventually accept a best to fly the rover.[26]
In June 1965, Above Accepted Samuel G. Phillips, Administrator of the Apollo Program, wrote to E.M. Cortright answer that although it would be adorable to accept a Surveyor departer acreage at an Apollo armpit above-mentioned to a Lunar Module ambience bottomward there, this was not a requirement. “It is not, however, bright that the lunar apparent will be fatigued by the ambulant agent to levels commensurable with those generated during the landing of the Lunar Excursion Module,” Phillips wrote. Abstracts of that affectionate was additionally not necessarily required.[27]
Phillips declared that with bound animal and added resources, he believed that the basal needs of Apollo would be best served by allotment college antecedence to the added Surveyor aspects. Phillips added that he was alone advertence an assessment about the Surveyor rover’s annual to Apollo, not added NASA missions. He accustomed that the departer could additionally be acclimated for science purposes by the Office of Space Science and Applications, and as a advancement ancestor by the Avant-garde Manned Missions Affairs Directorate.
Gray, the administrator of the Avant-garde Manned Missions Program, wrote to the Associate Administrator for Manned Space Flight in July 1965 to acknowledge that the Surveyor departer was not appropriate for acceptance of landing sites. He additionally declared that it was not appropriate to aid in the development of a manned rover. The Surveyor rover’s two primary justifications had accordingly ended.[28] The departer was again canceled.
Also in July, NASA recommended that Surveyor missions K-Q “be implemented with spacecraft-mounted accurate experiments”—meaning no added planning to backpack a departer and a about-face against science goals for the afterwards Surveyor missions.[29] Associate Administrator for Space Science and Applications Homer Newell wrote that “the use of anchored chart on anchored Surveyor aircraft for missions K thru Q will admittance the accomplished anticipation of auspiciously accomplishing a ample cardinal of investigations at altered credibility on the Moon which will be of annual to Apollo and additionally accommodate a added accurate compassionate of the attributes of the Moon.”
Newell additionally cautioned that Surveyor was again in a “critical phase” and annihilation should be accustomed to affect the aircraft development. Because of the cogent accumulated amount by departer contractors Bendix and Accepted Motors, Newell recommended that NASA Administrator James Webb be circuitous in anon speaking to chief administration at the companies about the departer cancellation. Finally, Newell common that “missions K thru Q with spacecraft-mounted accurate abstracts be accustomed as an basic allotment of the Surveyor program.”
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